from republic to empire
As Rome's political and social systems evolved at home, its armies expanded Roman power across Italy. Roman armies conquered first the Etruscans and then the Greek city-states in the south. By about 270 BCE, Rome controlled most of the Italian peninsula.
Rome's success was due to skillful diplomacy and to its loyal, well-trained army. The basic military unit was the legion, made up of about 5,000 men. As in Greece, Roman armies consisted of citizen-soldiers who fought without pay and supplied their own weapons. Roman citizens often made good soldiers because they were brought up to value loyalty, courage, and respect for authority.
To ensure success, Roman commanders mixed rewards with harsh punishments. Young soldiers who showed courage in action won praise and gifts. If a unit fled from battle, however, 1 out of every 10 men from the disgraced unit was put to death.
As Rome expanded, its defeated enemies were generally treated with justice. Conquered peoples had to acknowledge Roman leadership, pay taxes, and supply soldiers for the Roman army. In return, Rome let them keep their own customs, money, and local government.
To a few privileged groups among the conquered people, Rome gave the highly prized right of full citizenship. Others became partial citizens, who were allowed to marry Romans and carry on trade in Rome. As a result of such generous policies, most conquered lands remained loyal to Rome even in times of trouble.
To protect its conquests, Rome posted soldiers throughout the land. It also built a network of all-weather military roads to link distant territories to Rome. As trade and travel increased, local peoples incorporated Latin into their languages and adopted many Roman customs and beliefs. Slowly, Italy began to unite under Roman rule.
Rome's success was due to skillful diplomacy and to its loyal, well-trained army. The basic military unit was the legion, made up of about 5,000 men. As in Greece, Roman armies consisted of citizen-soldiers who fought without pay and supplied their own weapons. Roman citizens often made good soldiers because they were brought up to value loyalty, courage, and respect for authority.
To ensure success, Roman commanders mixed rewards with harsh punishments. Young soldiers who showed courage in action won praise and gifts. If a unit fled from battle, however, 1 out of every 10 men from the disgraced unit was put to death.
As Rome expanded, its defeated enemies were generally treated with justice. Conquered peoples had to acknowledge Roman leadership, pay taxes, and supply soldiers for the Roman army. In return, Rome let them keep their own customs, money, and local government.
To a few privileged groups among the conquered people, Rome gave the highly prized right of full citizenship. Others became partial citizens, who were allowed to marry Romans and carry on trade in Rome. As a result of such generous policies, most conquered lands remained loyal to Rome even in times of trouble.
To protect its conquests, Rome posted soldiers throughout the land. It also built a network of all-weather military roads to link distant territories to Rome. As trade and travel increased, local peoples incorporated Latin into their languages and adopted many Roman customs and beliefs. Slowly, Italy began to unite under Roman rule.
Rome added many conquered lands to the republic and gained control of important trade routes. Some Romans became very rich. However, many people were poor and could not find jobs. Government officials became greedy and corrupt, or dishonest. Efforts for reform resulted in civil wars that lasted 100 years.
Out of this chaos emerged Julius Caesar, an ambitious military commander. In 48 BCE, Julius Caesar came to power and forced the Senate to make him dictator, but this time with absolute rule. Caesar increased Roman power and made reforms without destroying the republic. However, his enemies in the Senate killed him because they feared he wanted to be king of Rome. The death of Julius Caesar plunged Rome into a new round of civil war. Then in 31 BCE, Octavian Augustus (Caesar’s grandnephew) came to power. Augustus Caesar did not call himself a king, a title that Romans had hated since Etruscan times. However, he ruled with absolute, or complete, power just as a king would do. The Romans did not know it then, but this was the end of the 500-year republic. The age of the Roman Empire had begun.
The 200-year period that followed was called the Pax Romana, or Roman Peace. During the Pax Romana, Roman legions maintained and protected the roads, and Roman fleets chased pirates from the seas. Trade flowed freely to and from distant lands in Africa and Asia. Augustus and later emperors created a strong central government. Some reduced taxes and gave people jobs. Ideas and knowledge, especially Hellenistic culture from Greece, spread throughout the empire. However, some emperors were bad and they ignored the social and economic problems plaguing the Empire. They used free food, races and gladiator fights to control the people, known as Bread and Circuses.
Out of this chaos emerged Julius Caesar, an ambitious military commander. In 48 BCE, Julius Caesar came to power and forced the Senate to make him dictator, but this time with absolute rule. Caesar increased Roman power and made reforms without destroying the republic. However, his enemies in the Senate killed him because they feared he wanted to be king of Rome. The death of Julius Caesar plunged Rome into a new round of civil war. Then in 31 BCE, Octavian Augustus (Caesar’s grandnephew) came to power. Augustus Caesar did not call himself a king, a title that Romans had hated since Etruscan times. However, he ruled with absolute, or complete, power just as a king would do. The Romans did not know it then, but this was the end of the 500-year republic. The age of the Roman Empire had begun.
The 200-year period that followed was called the Pax Romana, or Roman Peace. During the Pax Romana, Roman legions maintained and protected the roads, and Roman fleets chased pirates from the seas. Trade flowed freely to and from distant lands in Africa and Asia. Augustus and later emperors created a strong central government. Some reduced taxes and gave people jobs. Ideas and knowledge, especially Hellenistic culture from Greece, spread throughout the empire. However, some emperors were bad and they ignored the social and economic problems plaguing the Empire. They used free food, races and gladiator fights to control the people, known as Bread and Circuses.